Marking out, or layout means the process
of transferring a design or pattern to a workpiece, as
the first step in the manufacturing process.
Before beginning any practical task it
is important to mark out your work accurately.
Planning and preparing a work piece
is vital to the success of the final outcome.
Depending on the material being used
there are different tools, equipment and machines which can be used.
A
calliper is an instrument for measuring external or internal distance between
two opposite sides of an object.
The tips of the caliper are adjusted to
fit across the points to be measured, the caliper is then removed and the distance read by measuring
between the tips with a measuring tool, such as a ruler.
A scriber is a hand tool used in metalworking to
mark lines on workpieces,
prior to machining.
This tool can also be used to mark out plastics. The
process of using a scriber is called scribing and
is just part of the process of marking out.
The steel rule is a basic measuring tool.
When used correctly, a good steel rule is an accurate measuring device.
It is not uncommon to confuse rules and
scales. A scale is a measuring device used by engineers that assists them in
making drawings to a scale other than full size. A rule is used to measure
actual sizes.
An engineer's square is the metalworkers'
equivalent of a tri-square. It consists of a steel blade inserted
into a heavier body at an angle of 90°. It helps engineers to measure 90 degree angles.
A centre punch is used to mark
the centre of a point.
It is made from mild steel with the point hardened and tempered so that it
withstands impact with the material it is marking.
It is usually used to mark
the centre of a hole when
drilling
holes. A drill has the tendency to "wander" if it does not start in a
recess. A centre punch forms a large enough dimple to "guide" the tip
of the drill.
A marking gauge is used to scribe
a line parallel to a reference edge or surface.
A marking gauge is the most
common type of gauge used for marking.
It uses a small pin,
sometimes referred to as a spur, to mark the wood when the tool
is dragged across it.
The definition of modifications is “a
change or alteration, usually to make something work better”
Raw materials are not ready for the
manufacture of products.
Raw materials have not yet been modified; machined or
processed into standard stock forms or sizes that can be used by manufacturing
industry on a production line.
To begin to manufacture we must
modify the shape and appearance of materials. As with marking out there are numerous
ways to modify a workpiece, therefore the list for this learning outcome has
been reduced to the most common tools, equipment and machines found in an
engineering workplace.
A saw is a tool consisting of a
blade, a hard toothed edge.
It is used to cut through various materials depending on saw type.
The cut is
made by placing the toothed edge against the material and moving it forcefully
forth and less forcefully back as most saws will cut on the push stroke.
There are numerous types of saw,
therefore the list for this learning outcome has been reduced to the most
common saws found in an engineering workplace.
A hacksaw has a
fine-toothed blade tensioned in a C-frame. Lightweight and versatile, able to cut through
wood, metal, plastic and other materials.
A junior hacksaw is a smaller
version of a regular hacksaw. The blade of a junior hacksaw is much
smaller than
a regular one, so the tool can be used for more precise cutting
or for applications that require a neater
finish.
Because of its size, a junior hacksaw also allows you to work in more confined
spaces,
where a regular hacksaw wouldn't fit. It is able to cut through wood, metal, plastic and
other materials.
A coping saw has a thin
blade tensioned in a C-shaped frame which can be used for a variety of
materials.
It can cut tight radiuses and has
the ability to
remove
the blade and thread it through a drilled hole to cut inside profiles. Ideal for trim
work, scrolling, and any other cutting which requires precision and intricate
cuts.
A tenon or backsaw is relatively short
saw with a narrow
blade that
is reinforced
along the upper edge.
Commonly used with miter boxes and in other applications which
require a consistently fine, straight cut. Often used to cut wood due to it’s
large teeth.
Scroll saws can operate with a band or a
continuous or a reciprocating blade.
Similar to coping saws, these powered
saws are
designed for intricate
scroll work, spiral lines, or patterns with the added benefit of a table the
material can be laid on while cutting to achieve precise rotation and detail. Creating
curves with edges is what it excels at.
Text
Text
Text
Text
A drill is a tool or machine with a rotating
cutting tip or
reciprocating hammer or chisel, used for making holes.
Drilling is a cutting process that uses a
drill
bit to
cut a hole of circular cross-section in solid materials the purpose of a
cordless drill is to spin “bits”.
A bit is a tools that go in the end of the
drill and they come in many different shapes, to accommodate driving,
drilling, mixing or cutting.
A jigsaw has a short,
fine-toothed blade
which moves up
and down at
variable speeds.
This is one of the few saws which are designed specifically
for cutting
curves and
other non-straight
lines.
Similar
to
coping saws, these powered saws are designed for intricate scroll work, spiral
lines, or patterns.
A pillar drill press (also known as a
pedestal drill, drill press, or bench drill) is a fixed
style of drill
that may be mounted on a stand or bolted to the floor or workbench.
The primary function of a pillar drill is
drilling
holes,
however it can be used with a variety of attachments to increase the
versatility of the machine.
A hammer is a tool or device that delivers
a blow to an
object.
Generally, hammers are hand tools used to drive
nails, fit parts, forge metal, and break apart objects.
A ball-pein hammer also
known as a machinist's hammer, is a type of peening hammer used in
metalworking.
A claw hammer is a
tool primarily used for pounding nails into, or extracting nails
from, some other object.
Generally,
associated with woodworking but is not limited to use with wood products. It is
not suitable for heavy hammering on metal surfaces (such as in machining work),
as the steel of its head is too brittle.
Pliers are a multi-purpose
hand tool with
opposing jaws for gripping, bending and cutting. The
two cross metal limbs provide tough leverage for multiplying the strength of
the user's hand.
Some are used for gripping something round like a pipe
or rod,
some are used for twisting wires, and
others are designed to be used for a combination of tasks including cutting
wire.
Tin snips are designed to cut
and trim sheet metal and
other thin
yet tough materials.
Sheet metal can come in a variety of shapes and sizes and so tin snips are
useful for cutting
the sheet metal to the desired measurements.
Angle grinders may be used for removing excess material from a piece. There are many different kinds of discs that are used for various materials and tasks, such as cut-off discs (diamond blade), abrasive grinding discs, grinding stones, sanding discs, wire brush wheels and polishing pads. Angle grinders typically have an adjustable guard and a side-handle for two-handed operation.
A file is a tool used to remove
fine amounts of material from
a workpiece.
Most are hand tools, made of a case
hardened
steel bar of rectangular, square, triangular, or round cross-section, with one
or more surfaces cut with sharp, generally parallel teeth.
The cut of the file refers to how fine
its teeth are. They are defined from roughest to smoothest.
In Industry it is not efficient or
profitable to make everyday products by hand. On a CNC machine it is possible
to make hundreds or even thousands of the same item in a day.
CNC
means Computer Numerical Control.
This means a computer converts the design produced by Computer Aided Design
software (CAD), into numbers. The numbers can be
considered to be the coordinates of a graph and
they control the movement of the cutter. In this way the computer controls the
cutting and shaping of the material.
A router is a hand
tool or power tool that
a worker uses to hollow out an area in relatively hard material like wood or plastic.
Routers are mainly used in woodworking.
They are typically handheld or fastened cutting end-up in a router table.
A
router is made up of a broad base and a narrow blade that projects well beyond
its base plate to cut into material, then guided by hand around the workpiece.
CNC milling is a specific form of computer
numerical controlled (CNC)
machining.
Milling itself is a machining process similar to both drilling and cutting, and
able to achieve many of the operations performed by cutting and drilling
machines.
Like drilling, milling uses a rotating cylindrical cutting tool.
However, the cutter in a milling machine is
able to move
along multiple axes (X, Y, Z) and can create a variety of shapes, slots and
holes. In addition, the workpiece is often moved across the milling tool in
different directions, unlike the single axis motion of a drill.
A lathe machine is a machine tool which
is used principally for shaping pieces of metal (and sometimes
wood or other materials) from a workpiece to give a desired shape and size.
It is
an accurate and versatile machine on which many operations can be performed; Plain
Turning and Step Turning, Facing, Parting, Drilling, Reaming, Boring, Knurling,
Grooving, Threading, Forming, Filling and Polishing, Taper Turning.
CNC lathes come with a
number of
benefits. They can be easily set up and operated. They offer tremendous
repeatability, along with accuracy in production. A part can be designed for
customisation, and the machine’s tool paths are often programmed using the CAD
or CAM processes.
Laser cutting is a precise
method of cutting a
design from a given material using a CAD file to guide it. This involves firing
a laser which
cuts by melting,
burning or vaporising your
material.
You can achieve a really fine level of
cutting detail on with a wide variety of materials.
The beam is emitted from what’s called
the ‘laser tube’ and is reflected by several mirrors up into the ‘laser head’.
Within the head is a lens that finely focuses the beam onto the material
surface for cutting or engraving.
The kerf refers to how much of the
material the laser takes away when cutting through.
In order to choose the best way of joining any
combination of materials in any situation which is likely to arise, we must
have a good general knowledge of methods of joining.
Joints can be classified in several ways,
such as temporary and permanent, flexible and rigid, and hot and cold formed.
A hand tool for turning a screw, consisting of a handle attached to a long, narrow shank, usually of metal, which tapers and flattens out to a tip that fits into the slotted head of a screw. A screwdriver amplifies the hand's turning motion to the small, specially designed tip that is inserted into the screw's head. There are numerous tip designs for special applications, which are listed below:
A Phillips screwdriver is a tool with a tip designed to fit into the crossed, X-shaped grooves on the heads of Phillips screws, allowing you to turn and drive them in or out.
A Torx screwdriver has a tip with a star-shaped pattern that fits into the correspondingly shaped socket on Torx screws, allowing it to securely grip and turn these specialized screw heads.
A slotted screwdriver has a single flat blade that fits into the linear groove on the top of slotted or flat-head screws to turn and drive them in or out.
A Pozidrive screwdriver has a tip with a cross-shaped groove similar to a Phillips head, but with additional radial grooves that allow it to have more surface contact and grip in the screw head, reducing cam-out when driving screws.
A tool that provides a grip for tightening or loosening a fastener, such as a nut or bolt. Most spanners are made of steel for strength and are often chrome-plated to protect against corrosion. The most common type of spanner wrench is the C spanner. Its head is open in the shape of the letter C, and its jaws are meant to correspond to the similarly sized nut.
An open-ended spanner (wrench) is a hand tool with a U-shaped opening on one or both ends that fits around and grips nuts, bolts or other objects to allow rotation and tightening or loosening.
A ratchet spanner (wrench) is a tool that allows the user to pull it in one direction to tighten a nut or bolt, while a reversing lever lets the ratcheting mechanism bypass the opposite direction, making it easier to work in tight spaces.
A combination spanner (wrench) is a hand tool that has an open-ended attachment on one side to fit over nuts and bolts, and a closed ring on the other side that fully encircles and grips the fastener more securely.
Adhesives are used in engineering to bond different materials together, creating strong and durable joints or connections. They allow engineers to assemble structures, products, and components from various substrates like metals, plastics, ceramics, and composites in an efficient and often more cost-effective manner compared to mechanical fastening methods.
PVA glue is a versatile, water-based adhesive made from polyvinyl acetate that dries clear and flexible, making it useful for craft projects, school supplies, and general household repairs.
PVA stands for Polyvinyl Acetate.
Contact adhesive is a type of strong, sticky glue that forms a permanent bond when two surfaces are pressed together after the adhesive has been applied and allowed to become tacky.
A hot glue gun uses a continuous
heating element to
melt the plastic
glue,
which the user pushes through the gun either with a mechanical trigger
mechanism on the gun, or with direct finger pressure.
Wood glue is an adhesive specially formulated to strongly bond wood surfaces together, often made from synthetic polymers or natural ingredients like animal or plant-based proteins.
Epoxy resin is a extremely strong and durable adhesive material that starts as two separate liquid components which must be mixed together, allowing a chemical reaction to occur that causes it to harden into a solid, plasticized state when cured.
Super glue, also known as cyanoacrylate adhesive, is a quick-bonding liquid glue that forms an extremely strong, water-resistant bond almost instantly when applied between two surfaces and allowed to cure.
Spray adhesive is a type of glue that comes in an aerosol can and can be sprayed onto surfaces as a fine, even mist, allowing for quick and temporary or permanent bonding depending on the formula.
Welding is used in engineering to permanently join two or more metal parts together by melting and fusing the materials. It creates a strong, unified structure and is widely employed in manufacturing, construction, and repair applications across many industries due to its durability, efficiency, and versatility in joining different metal alloys.
MIG (Metal Inert Gas) welding is a process where a continuous solid wire electrode is fed through a welding gun and joined together with the workpieces by an electric arc while being shielded by an inert gas to prevent contamination.
TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas) welding is a precise method that uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to produce the electric arc for melting the metal, while an inert shielding gas protects the weld pool from contamination.
Arc welding is a process that uses an electric arc formed between an electrode and the metal pieces being joined to melt and fuse the materials together through the intense heat generated.
A soldering iron is a hand tool used in
soldering. It supplies heat to melt solder
which makes a permanent joint between 2 pieces of metal, by
using an alloy which has a lower melting point than the metals being joined, as
a 'glue'.
Soldering irons are most often used for installation,
repairs, and limited production work in electronics assembly.
At its most basic level, a nail gun has
only two jobs:
1.It
needs to concentrate a great deal of hammering force into a single
mechanized blow,
which can be repeated rapidly.
2.It
needs to load
a new nail after
the previous nail is ejected.
The simplest nail guns use ordinary
springs to
generate the hammering force.
This installs pop
rivets.
These have the advantage that they can be set quickly from one side only.
They
are weaker
than solid rivets because
they are made from soft metal and are hollow.
They are used mainly for joining thin sheet metal, but
they can also be used for other thin materials.
In Engineering, the items that are used in addition to tools are called components. A hammer alone will not join two pieces of wood together, however when used with nails it will. It is important to know which component goes with which joining tool.
Nailing is the quickest way of making a permanent
joint in wood.
Nails cannot be removed easily or without
damage, and
therefore should not be used as temporary joints. The nail punches the fibres
of the wood away from the nail head. They grip the shank of the nail and resist
attempts to withdraw it. The serrations round the shank, below the head, give
extra grip. The treaded pattern on the head stops the hammer from slipping.
Always nail through the thinner piece of
wood into the thicker piece.
Nails are sold by length, type, material
and weight (not number).
Screws are an effective way of making a permanent
or temporary joint in wood.
The thread of the screw becomes
enmeshed with
the grain fibres to make a strong joint.
Screws are stronger,
neater and more accurate than
nails, and can
be taken out without causing damage.
Steel screws are the strongest and
cheapest. Brass screws look better and do not rust, but are not very strong.
Self-tapping screws are used to join thin
sheets of metal and plastics. They are made of hardened steel so that they can
cut their own thread as they are screwed in.
Wood dowels are cylindrical rods made of wood that are used to join two pieces of material together.
They are inserted into precisely drilled holes across the surfaces to be joined, with glue applied to help secure the dowel joints and create a strong, interlocking connection.
Rivets are used to make permanent
joints in metal, to
join
metal to soft materials
and for joining
soft materials to each other.
Types of Solid rivets:
• Snap
or round head rivets are
used for general purposes where a flush finish is not important and
countersinking would weaken the job.
• Countersunk
head rivets are
used for general purposes where a flush surface is needed. They are the most
commonly used
type.
•Flat
head rivets are
used for joining thin plates which cannot be countersunk.
All these fixings are usually made of steel
or brass and
can be coated either to rustproof the steel or to
improve
their appearance.
Bolts usually have either a square
or a hexagonal head.
They are ordered by the diameter of the thread and the length to the underside
of the head.
Bolts may be threaded for all or part of their length.
Nuts are either plain square, plain
hexagonal, wing nuts for easy removal, or special locking nuts to prevent
vibration loosening them. Washers are used to protect the surface
when the nut is tightened,
to spread the load or to prevent vibration loosening the joint.
Screws and nuts are fasteners used to join materials together by threading the screw into a pre-tapped hole or through materials and securing it with a matching nut on the opposite side.
This creates a tight, removable connection that can be adjusted and disassembled, making screws and nuts ideal for applications requiring easy assembly, maintenance, or future modifications.
Finishing any engineering job properly is
just as important as any other operation along the production cycle.
The appearance of a finished product will
always have an impact on the saleability.
After all, if something looks rough and unfinished it’s less likely to sell. In
addition, there’s the safety impact to
consider.
Rough edges and burrs can not only put buyers off but can be a
serious health and safety risk. So an important part of finishing is to
remove those risks.
However, it’s not just the look of the
product that matters when it comes to the finishing. From an engineering point
of view, the primary
reason for finishing is to prevent corrosion. You don’t want to spend time and money
manufacturing a great product only to reduce its lifespan by using the
wrong type of finish.
A sander is a power
tool used
to smooth
surfaces by abrasion with
sandpaper.
Sanders have a means to attach the
sandpaper and a mechanism to move it rapidly contained within a housing with
means to hand-hold it.
A belt sander is a sander used in shaping
and finishing wood and other materials.
It consists of an electric motor that
turns a pair of drums on which a continuous loop of sandpaper is
mounted.
Belt sanders may be handheld and
moved over the material.
A hand-held sander that vibrates
in small circles,
or "orbits."
The sanding disk spinning while moving simultaneously in
small ellipses causes the orbital action that it is known for.
Mostly used for fine
sanding or
where little material needs to be removed.
A disc sander is most
commonly implemented
as a stationary
machine that
consists of a replaceable circular shaped sandpaper attached
to a wheel turned by an electric motor or compressed air.
The usually wooden work
piece, (although other materials can be shaped and worked on such as plastics,
metals and other soft materials), is
sat on a front bench that can be adjusted to various angles. It can be used for
rough or fine sanding depending on the sanding grit used.
Polishing and buffing are finishing
processes for smoothing a workpiece's surface using an
abrasive and a work wheel.
Buffing uses a loose abrasive applied to the work wheel.
A common misconception is that a polished
surface has a mirror bright finish, however most mirror bright finishes are actually
buffed.
Buffing wheels, also known as mops, are
either made from cotton or wool cloth and
come bleached or unbleached. Compounds are added to the wheel and used when
buffing different materials.
